Lawrence Principe, 'The Secrets of Alchemy': review
Alchemy is a subject that is as diverse as it
elusive when one tries to find definitive interpretations of its literature and
gain a thorough understanding of its ideas. Without doubt, it is the lack of
understanding and the inaccessibility of original sources that engendered the
enormous corpus of non-academic writings on alchemy we have today,
overshadowing sound scientific studies that are not occupied primarily with
‘occultism’ or magical practices (pp. 2-3). From
Late Classical Hellenic Egypt and the Arabic world to alchemy’s apex in Early
Modern Europe: the subject area is vast, with different and old languages
involved. In all, alchemy travelled a long way before ending up in popular
culture like Paul Coelho’s The Alchemist
and J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the
Philosopher’s Stone, which immediately betray persistent clichés on alchemy
as such. What, however, was alchemy really about?
Lawrence Principe sets out to describe precisely that. While confronting the reader with a brief contextualisation as abovementioned, he makes it clear that he is about to embark on a quest to unveil the ‘true nature of alchemy’: ‘Who were the alchemists, and what did they believe and do? What were their goals, and what did they accomplish? How did they envision their world and their work, and how were they seen by contemporaries?’ (p. 3). Taken together with stating that he wants to write not for specialists but the general reader and student instead, it becomes clear that The Secrets of Alchemy is a sober and fairly broad yet concise introduction to alchemy and its ‘secrets’.
With his objective of making alchemy accessible to the general reader set, Principe has determined the limitations of his overview in a responsible way. Next, the Eurocentric history of alchemy follows. Apparently most of the attention is given to late classical and Arabic alchemical authors and theories as far as they are relevant for its western branch that developed from the twelfth up to the seventeenth century. Therefore, Indian and Chinese alchemy are utterly irrelevant for this discourse. At the same time Principe does not wish to dwell upon myriad alchemical authors or know sources, but instead focusses only on key figures and texts that may serve as ‘reckoning points’ (p. 4) for the reader. The book thus has the allure of an accessible reader which offers the essentials for an academically accepted understanding of western alchemy.
The author’s awareness that alchemy, as said, has been the victim of many anachronistic and incorrect interpretations and assessments is ubiquitous in The Secrets of Alchemy. He spills quite some ink to stress this point at several instances, and at the same time tries to separate alchemy from everything possibly occult. Now some instances will be discussed to exhibit some of the scholar’s approach.
One example is the Hellenistic Corpus alchemicum graecum, of which the so-called Physika kai mystika is the earliest (p. 12). Principe deems it necessary to discuss this title, since it has often been translated as Physical and Mystical Things. He points out straightaway, though, that mystika did not refer to mystical in the modern sense, but instead meant ‘things to be kept hidden’. Hence the author did not have anything spiritual in mind.
Later on Zosimos is discussed as a representative of late Hellenistic alchemy, and it is brought under the reader’s attention that alchemists definitely did not work in a whimsical way (p. 16). On the contrary, already with Zosimos one can discern theoretical principles and practical observations that guided his work (which return elsewhere). When Zosimos indulges in allegorical descriptions of the Great Work (the process of producing the Philosopher’s Stone), he uses ‘dreams’ as tropes to do so. In later times these dreams where mystified and psychologised, but this was a matter of reading new meanings into the text, and had nothing to do with what Zosimos really meant.
As a final example Principe’s discussion of alchemy during its Golden Age (chapter three), which are the sixteenth and seventeenth century. After having pointed out what transmutation (changing base metals into gold) actually was, what options alchemists had in order to do it, and how they could obtain their information, the reader is reminded to the fact that the fiendishly difficult Work meant serious business. It was usually not accompanied by cooking up ‘witches’ brews of anything and everything that came to hand, hoping thereby to stumble upon the stone’ (p. 116).
These traces culminate in the insertion of chapter four, in which the downfall of alchemy is described in the light of the polarising intellectual discourse of the Enlightenment. An elaboration of the ever increasing critique alchemists had to endure apparently is imperative for Principe’s treatment for two reasons. First, the dissensions surrounding alchemy in the late seventeenth and particularly the first decades of the eighteenth century are simply an essential part of alchemy’s history. Second, however, it is again to emphasise that alchemy as we get to know it through cinema and the average offer in book stores is not at all the historically correct presentation. The image of alchemy as an irrational pseudo-science as opposed to the rational and experimental chemistry is mainly an Enlightenment dichotomy, whereas its mystical and psychological dimensions are (late) nineteenth-century reinterpretations. Hence Principe’s preference for the term ‘chymistry’, instead of ‘chemistry’ and ‘alchemy’ with their semantic burden (p. 85).
It is only after this discussion of alchemy’s reception that he resumes his chronological outline, and in doing so he elucidates ‘chymistry’ in all its diversity well. In providing a brief summary of historical developments there is the risk of being too general and essentialistic, but Principe refrains from this type of monolithic depictions. He shows that alchemy did not offer one way to produce the Stone, and there was not one recipe for it (p. 112 and further), but indeed several schools existed (p. 117), while students constantly reflected upon writings of adepts. Moreover, alchemy was not an isolated discipline, but was involved with astrology, philosophy, theology, practical chemistry and in particular medicine (p. 127 onwards) too.
In general it must be remarked that The Secrets of Alchemy ties in well to modern and recent scholarship on the history and content of alchemy. He has added ample footnotes for further reading. The reader gets familiar with alchemical key texts and authors, modern editions thereof, and becomes acquainted with modern ideas on the subject. Moreover, Principe brings his readers to actual (al)chemical experimentation by introducing his own laboratory experiments. This really adds a new dimension to the book, since the author has a degree in chemistry as well, and he utilises this to demonstrate the concrete experimental background of sometimes riddling texts. A good example is found on page 141. Basil Valentine’s The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony (1604) contains an account of the production of ‘Sulfur of antimony’ (p. 141), which chemically seems to make no sense at all. For instance, one result of the process was a red solution that followed from golden antimony glass submerged in vinegar. After reproducing the exáct account Principe attested it by using ore that contained quartz which enabled the forming of the ‘glass’, and an iron rod which caused the red colour (Valentine was not aware of the presence of quartz or of the corrosive effect). Dismissing Valentine’s description as nonsense would therefore have been too rash a judgement, and such an attitude towards alchemical treatises should best be avoided.
In all there are only minor points of critique, partially concerning the book’s presentation. The content description does not indicate well what the reader may expect, like the etymology of ‘alchemy’ on page 24. Fortunately the index makes up for this shortcoming. Second, the author’s agenda. He successfully helps re-evaluating alchemy as a legitimate part of the history of science, but in doing so perhaps tries too hard to avoid everything ‘occult’, spiritual and so forth. Furthermore he pays too little attention to mutually influencing factors such as early modern economy, trade, printing press, Reformation, patronage, the influence of early modern esotericism in general and pre-Enlightenment apologetic and polemic rhetoric to discuss the efflorescence and decline of early modern alchemy adequately. The reader is shown linear causality instead. Nonetheless this shortcoming can be forgiven with the scholar’s original intention in mind.
In all, these are relatively minor issues. He attends to a lot of aspects in the history of alchemy, such as its cultural context, development of fundamental theories and contemporary receptions. He is at pains to avoid anachronisms, prejudice and generalisation, but instead remains nuanced (e.g. Zosimos, p. 22). With regard to the historiography of the discipline, his agenda should be welcomed as a valuable contribution to old studies by for instance Thompson and Holmyard. Indeed he makes alchemy divulge its secrets, and his The Secrets of Alchemy is therefore entertaining, accessible, subtle and, perhaps most importantly for its uniqueness, quite concrete and refreshing.
Lawrence Principe sets out to describe precisely that. While confronting the reader with a brief contextualisation as abovementioned, he makes it clear that he is about to embark on a quest to unveil the ‘true nature of alchemy’: ‘Who were the alchemists, and what did they believe and do? What were their goals, and what did they accomplish? How did they envision their world and their work, and how were they seen by contemporaries?’ (p. 3). Taken together with stating that he wants to write not for specialists but the general reader and student instead, it becomes clear that The Secrets of Alchemy is a sober and fairly broad yet concise introduction to alchemy and its ‘secrets’.
With his objective of making alchemy accessible to the general reader set, Principe has determined the limitations of his overview in a responsible way. Next, the Eurocentric history of alchemy follows. Apparently most of the attention is given to late classical and Arabic alchemical authors and theories as far as they are relevant for its western branch that developed from the twelfth up to the seventeenth century. Therefore, Indian and Chinese alchemy are utterly irrelevant for this discourse. At the same time Principe does not wish to dwell upon myriad alchemical authors or know sources, but instead focusses only on key figures and texts that may serve as ‘reckoning points’ (p. 4) for the reader. The book thus has the allure of an accessible reader which offers the essentials for an academically accepted understanding of western alchemy.
The author’s awareness that alchemy, as said, has been the victim of many anachronistic and incorrect interpretations and assessments is ubiquitous in The Secrets of Alchemy. He spills quite some ink to stress this point at several instances, and at the same time tries to separate alchemy from everything possibly occult. Now some instances will be discussed to exhibit some of the scholar’s approach.
One example is the Hellenistic Corpus alchemicum graecum, of which the so-called Physika kai mystika is the earliest (p. 12). Principe deems it necessary to discuss this title, since it has often been translated as Physical and Mystical Things. He points out straightaway, though, that mystika did not refer to mystical in the modern sense, but instead meant ‘things to be kept hidden’. Hence the author did not have anything spiritual in mind.
Later on Zosimos is discussed as a representative of late Hellenistic alchemy, and it is brought under the reader’s attention that alchemists definitely did not work in a whimsical way (p. 16). On the contrary, already with Zosimos one can discern theoretical principles and practical observations that guided his work (which return elsewhere). When Zosimos indulges in allegorical descriptions of the Great Work (the process of producing the Philosopher’s Stone), he uses ‘dreams’ as tropes to do so. In later times these dreams where mystified and psychologised, but this was a matter of reading new meanings into the text, and had nothing to do with what Zosimos really meant.
As a final example Principe’s discussion of alchemy during its Golden Age (chapter three), which are the sixteenth and seventeenth century. After having pointed out what transmutation (changing base metals into gold) actually was, what options alchemists had in order to do it, and how they could obtain their information, the reader is reminded to the fact that the fiendishly difficult Work meant serious business. It was usually not accompanied by cooking up ‘witches’ brews of anything and everything that came to hand, hoping thereby to stumble upon the stone’ (p. 116).
These traces culminate in the insertion of chapter four, in which the downfall of alchemy is described in the light of the polarising intellectual discourse of the Enlightenment. An elaboration of the ever increasing critique alchemists had to endure apparently is imperative for Principe’s treatment for two reasons. First, the dissensions surrounding alchemy in the late seventeenth and particularly the first decades of the eighteenth century are simply an essential part of alchemy’s history. Second, however, it is again to emphasise that alchemy as we get to know it through cinema and the average offer in book stores is not at all the historically correct presentation. The image of alchemy as an irrational pseudo-science as opposed to the rational and experimental chemistry is mainly an Enlightenment dichotomy, whereas its mystical and psychological dimensions are (late) nineteenth-century reinterpretations. Hence Principe’s preference for the term ‘chymistry’, instead of ‘chemistry’ and ‘alchemy’ with their semantic burden (p. 85).
It is only after this discussion of alchemy’s reception that he resumes his chronological outline, and in doing so he elucidates ‘chymistry’ in all its diversity well. In providing a brief summary of historical developments there is the risk of being too general and essentialistic, but Principe refrains from this type of monolithic depictions. He shows that alchemy did not offer one way to produce the Stone, and there was not one recipe for it (p. 112 and further), but indeed several schools existed (p. 117), while students constantly reflected upon writings of adepts. Moreover, alchemy was not an isolated discipline, but was involved with astrology, philosophy, theology, practical chemistry and in particular medicine (p. 127 onwards) too.
In general it must be remarked that The Secrets of Alchemy ties in well to modern and recent scholarship on the history and content of alchemy. He has added ample footnotes for further reading. The reader gets familiar with alchemical key texts and authors, modern editions thereof, and becomes acquainted with modern ideas on the subject. Moreover, Principe brings his readers to actual (al)chemical experimentation by introducing his own laboratory experiments. This really adds a new dimension to the book, since the author has a degree in chemistry as well, and he utilises this to demonstrate the concrete experimental background of sometimes riddling texts. A good example is found on page 141. Basil Valentine’s The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony (1604) contains an account of the production of ‘Sulfur of antimony’ (p. 141), which chemically seems to make no sense at all. For instance, one result of the process was a red solution that followed from golden antimony glass submerged in vinegar. After reproducing the exáct account Principe attested it by using ore that contained quartz which enabled the forming of the ‘glass’, and an iron rod which caused the red colour (Valentine was not aware of the presence of quartz or of the corrosive effect). Dismissing Valentine’s description as nonsense would therefore have been too rash a judgement, and such an attitude towards alchemical treatises should best be avoided.
In all there are only minor points of critique, partially concerning the book’s presentation. The content description does not indicate well what the reader may expect, like the etymology of ‘alchemy’ on page 24. Fortunately the index makes up for this shortcoming. Second, the author’s agenda. He successfully helps re-evaluating alchemy as a legitimate part of the history of science, but in doing so perhaps tries too hard to avoid everything ‘occult’, spiritual and so forth. Furthermore he pays too little attention to mutually influencing factors such as early modern economy, trade, printing press, Reformation, patronage, the influence of early modern esotericism in general and pre-Enlightenment apologetic and polemic rhetoric to discuss the efflorescence and decline of early modern alchemy adequately. The reader is shown linear causality instead. Nonetheless this shortcoming can be forgiven with the scholar’s original intention in mind.
In all, these are relatively minor issues. He attends to a lot of aspects in the history of alchemy, such as its cultural context, development of fundamental theories and contemporary receptions. He is at pains to avoid anachronisms, prejudice and generalisation, but instead remains nuanced (e.g. Zosimos, p. 22). With regard to the historiography of the discipline, his agenda should be welcomed as a valuable contribution to old studies by for instance Thompson and Holmyard. Indeed he makes alchemy divulge its secrets, and his The Secrets of Alchemy is therefore entertaining, accessible, subtle and, perhaps most importantly for its uniqueness, quite concrete and refreshing.
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